Timeline Of Rare Earth Elements Production (1787 – Present)

The rare earth elements (REEs), a group of 17 chemically similar metals including the 15 lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium, are critical for modern technologies like magnets, electronics, renewable energy, defense systems, and catalysts.

Despite their name, they are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust but rarely occur in economically viable concentrations. Production history reflects shifts from early niche uses (e.g., gas mantles) to industrial-scale mining driven by demand for color TVs, magnets, and high-tech applications.

The timeline highlights discovery, early commercialization, U.S. dominance via the Mountain Pass mine, China’s rapid rise through low costs and strategic policies, and recent diversification efforts amid supply chain concerns.

Chronological timeline of key milestones in REE production:

• 1787–1794: Discovery era begins. A black mineral (gadolinite) is found near Ytterby, Sweden, in 1787. In 1794, Johan Gadolin analyzes it and identifies yttria (containing yttrium), the first rare earth “earth.” The village of Ytterby inspires names for four elements (yttrium, ytterbium, terbium, erbium).
• 1803: Cerium isolated independently by Jöns Jacob Berzelius/Wilhelm Hisinger (Sweden) and Martin Heinrich Klaproth (Germany), the first individual REE isolated.
• 1839–1843: Carl Gustaf Mosander advances separation techniques, discovering lanthanum (1839), erbium, and terbium (1843). He separates “didymium” (later split into neodymium and praseodymium).
• Late 1800s: Major discoveries continue (e.g., samarium 1879, gadolinium, dysprosium). Carl Auer von Welsbach invents the gas mantle (1891) using thorium and cerium/magnesium alloys, creating the first major commercial application. Ferrocerium (1903) follows for lighters.
• Early 1900s: Final elements identified (europium 1901, lutetium 1907). Promethium (element 61) produced artificially in 1945 at Oak Ridge due to its radioactivity. Early production from monazite sands in India, Brazil, and North Carolina for gas mantles and minor uses.
• 1950s: South Africa leads production from monazite deposits. Mountain Pass mine (California, USA) discovered in 1949 while prospecting for uranium; bastnaesite ore identified.
• Mid-1960s–1980s: U.S. dominance. Mountain Pass (operated by Molycorp) ramps up for europium in color TVs (essential for red phosphors). U.S. supplies ~70% of global REEs by the 1970s–1980s. Demand surges with electronics and defense (e.g., Manhattan Project-era research at Ames Lab advances separation).
• Late 1970s–1990s: China’s ascent. Production grows rapidly (40% annual average 1978–1995). Bayan Obo deposit (discovered 1927 as iron mine, REEs noted 1936) scales up. Export incentives (1985 rebates) and strategic designation (1990 as protected mineral) boost output. China floods market with low-cost REEs, undercutting competitors.
• 1990s–early 2000s: Shift to China. U.S. production declines due to environmental issues (e.g., 1997 wastewater spills at Mountain Pass), regulations, and cheap Chinese supply. Mountain Pass output falls sharply; idled by 2002. China reaches ~85–95% global share by late 1990s–2000s.
• 2010–2012: China export restrictions spark crisis. Prices surge (up to 500% in 2011–2012). Global attention turns to diversification; >200 new projects emerge worldwide.
• 2012 onward: Revival and diversification. Mountain Pass restarts (now MP Materials); U.S. production rebounds (e.g., ~43 kt in 2023, ~45 kt in 2024). Australia (Lynas) and others scale up. Global production surges from ~76 kt (1995) to ~350 kt (2023–2024).
• 2020s (as of 2024–2025): China still dominates (60–70% of mining, ~90% of processing). Top producers: China (270 kt), U.S. (45 kt), Myanmar (31 kt), Australia (~13–18 kt). Efforts intensify for non-Chinese supply chains (e.g., Australia processing hubs, U.S. DoE programs from 2014 for coal byproducts). Total global output exceeds 350 kt REO equivalent annually.

REEs are not truly “rare,” but mining and especially separation/processing are complex, environmentally challenging, and capital-intensive. China’s control stems from resource abundance, subsidies, lax early regulations, and vertical integration rather than monopoly on reserves (China holds ~36–40% of known reserves). Geopolitical tensions drive ongoing efforts to build resilient supply chains, with production expected to grow further amid EV, wind power, and defense demand.